Treat Rose Blackspot At Bud-Break With Myclobutanil

This over-wintered rose bud is about to break open. Gave a second spray with myclobutanil to kill blackspot spores arriving on new leaves. Blackspot over-winters on both stems and soil.

Dealing with spores is always easier than dealing with a disease once it has become established.

Coriander After 16 Days

Coriander roots are now about 3.5 cm (1.5 inches) long. They have done well to make so much growth in 4 days at such low temperature.

This is a tap root system; it will be forming lateral roots soon. Since coriander comes from a hot dry climate, a taproot system is ideal to access deep water and nutrients.

Things are starting moving on top, now. The hooked hypocotyls have turned green and the cotyledons (seed leaves) are about to emerge from the seeds.


WHAT'S THE POINT?
The point I want to make by showing you all this is that seed development is deceiving. Were it not for the fact that we can see the roots, we would never believe they had developed to the extent they have. This is why novice growers over-water seeds: As the compost dries on the surface, they believe the roots are still too short to access water deeper in the compost. They are not.

Glyphosate Safe On Moss On Flags

Glyphosate is normally used as a safe systemic weedkiller which is inactivated on contact with the soil. It is supposed to be very safe to all animals (including us) and can, apparently, be used around fish ponds without damaging the fish.

What I didn't know, however, is that it also works on moss - Moss on the flags that is, NOT ON THE LAWN.

Of course, it will work on the lawn, but because it is non-selective it would also kill the grass - and we don't want that (not after all the years I've spend keeping it alive!).

I always have a problem with moss growing on some shady flags, because the birds use it for nesting. And by the time they have finished, the season is nearly over. Consequently, moss builds up year by year.

WHAT ABOUT TEMPERATURE
As outlined elsewhere, glyphosate is extremely good on all sorts of weeds. However, it works best in warm weather, usually in late April or early May when the weeds are growing actively. Of course, the moss is growing now; so I have treated a small patch to see how it goes. About 8 hours of dry weather is needed so that it doesn't get washed off before it can be absorbed.

BEGINNERS NOTE:
'Tumbleweed' and 'Roundup' are trade names for glyphosate in the U.K. But you needn't use a brand name; you can use a cheaper generic brand. Look at the label, usually the front one. Glyphosate will be stated as the ACTIVE INGREDIENT, along with its strength. The cheapest way is to buy the concentrate, make it up yourself and apply with a hand sprayer (e.g. old kitchen cleaner spray).

ALWAYS USE RUBBER GLOVES WHEN USING WEEDKILLERS AND PESTICIDES, no matter how safe they are supposed to be - they can be absorbed through the skin!

Plant Root Growth

It is easy to assume that plant growth occurs evenly all over the surface. This is not the case. It is confined to specific areas and occurs through cell division and cell elongation.


CELL DIVISION
Growth begins with cell division by a process called MITOSIS. The principal type of growth, or PRIMARY (vertical) growth, occurs at the tips of the roots (and shoots) in APICAL MERISTEMS. As you can see, this region is a short distance back from the root (and shoot) tip(s).

The root apical meristem is protected by a specialised layer of hardened cells called the ROOT CAP.

CELL ELONGATION
Once divided, the new cells elongate, forcing the root cap through the soil/compost. Physical growth now becomes obvious. This elongation is not done in the meristem, but in another area further back.

ROOT HAIRS
Further back still, elongation has stopped and some of the root epidermal (skin) cells develop into single-celled structures called ROOT HAIRS. These are used to take in water and nutrients by intimate contact with the soil. Since they are extremely numerous, they have two effects:

• greatly increase the root surface area


• allow more intimate contact with soil - tending to bind fine, structureless soils

Root hairs are very short-lived and only occur close to the root tip. They are typically less than 1 cm (0.4 inches) in length.
STELE
The centre of the root forms the STELE, the specialised plumbing region. This consists of the XYLEM to carry water and nutrients upwards from the roots to the leaves, and the PHLOEM to carry manufactured food (sugars) from the leaves to the storage area (root) of the plant. Other processes, for example the distribution of growth substances, are also accommodated.

Types of Root System

Over thousands of years, plants have developed root systems to cater for their needs. All plants first grow a PRIMARY root which then develops into one of two types:

• taproot system


• fibrous root system

TAPROOT SYSTEM
Most plants develop a TAPROOT system. It is characterised by a tapering central structure from which lateral roots branch off. Sometimes, this type of root consists principally of a long, thick main taproot to store food reserves (e.g. dandelion); and sometimes this is thickened even more and has less lateral roots (e.g.carrot, beets).

Taproots are useful to access deep water and food reserves, and also to anchor tall plants, such as conifers.

FIBROUS ROOT SYSTEM

Fibrous roots systems are characterised by shallower roots of even thickness and profuse branching (e.g. grass roots). This gives an enormous surface area with which to extract water and nutrients. These roots are also good at preventing wind and water erosion, since they come into such intimate contact with the soil particles.

ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS
In monocots (such as grasses) the primary root dies and ADVENTITIOUS roots grow out of the stem ('adventitious growth' means 'growing out of place'). Shoot tip and leaf cuttings also develop this type of root.

Onions and other bulbs have fibrous roots which are also adventitious, since, as we have seen, a bulb is a compressed shoot. It doesn't half get complicated? But fortunately, you don't really need to know all this to grow plants well.

Note: Quite often it is not easy to determine whether a root is a highly branched taproot, or a fibrous root.

Coriander Seeds After 12 Days

I know I showed you this last year. But its so important we should revisit.

In 4 days, and although these coriander seeds in the plastic cup (left) have been placed in a much cooler spot (average temp. about 5 deg C), the roots (radicles) have doubled in size (compared with right, taken 4 days ago) and are now about 2.5 cm (1 inch) long.

Novice growers are often amazed to see so much root development with hardly anything happening above ground. And because we can also see water droplets on the side of the cup, we know the seeds do not need watering, no matter how dry the surface gets. This is wonderful, since we can now at last avoid the 'cardinal sin' of OVER-WATERING, and quickly develop a good watering technique.

BUT THERE'S MORE . . .
I don't know about you, but I was surprised to see coriander growing in such cool conditions. Although, having said this, it is mostly the root which has grown. This is good. Because a low temperature produces stronger, healthier plants.

Note: Coriander seeds are unusual in that they seem to produce two plants per seed (there would normally be only one root (radicle) per seed). No one ever seems to mention this. A coriander seed produces two radicles, each of which will develop into a separate tap root.

Geranium Buds Now Need Watering

These new buds opening on the rested geranium (pelargonium), together with the stronger daylight, mean that watering can be stepped up to support the expected growth. I have just given the first medium watering since last autumn.

Actually, if the weather hadn't been so cold and unpredictable, it would have been best to give more water a little earlier, at the first sign of buds, or even just before. This seems to induce production of larger flowers. As it is, we are now watering for the next flush of flowers.

No Moss In Lawn: Feeding Delayed

Following last autumn's treatment, then a single treatment with ferrous sulphate mosskiller in November, the lawn now seems to be for the first time completely free from moss.

AUTUMN TREATMENT
Of all the things I did last autumn, I think lowering the acidity by adding ground limestone had the most effect. I say this because this was the first time I had done it; I had been thinking of doing it for years, but always shied away on the grounds that it might make the turf susceptible to fusarium disease, and also might create a worm cast problem. So I did it in the end out of sheer desperation.

Thankfully, the news is good on both fronts:

• There seems to be less disease than usual
• There is only one worm cast since the treatment (I did get occasional ones before this)
  

DELAYED SPRING FEEDING
I usually feed with a spring feed with ferrous sulphate mosskiller at this time of year, but I came unstuck last year when the weather turned nasty. So I have decided to delay feeding a week or two longer.

Lettuce Seed Germinating In Soil Cups

5 days after sowing in a cupful of damp garden soil kept at approximately 8 deg C (46 deg F), this lettuce seed shows quite clearly that the root (radicle) is first to emerge from the seed case (testa), complete with delicate root hairs to absorb water from the soil. The white hypocotyl (the part between the root hairs and the seed) has extended. Had the seed been buried, this hypocotyl would also have hooked over to drag the seed case containing the cotyledons (or 'seed leaves') out of the soil as it extended upwards.

GEOTROPISM
Note that even young roots will always grow downwards. They are said to exhibit 'positive geotropism'. Shoots exhibit 'negative geotropism' and grow upwards towards the light.

After 9 days, you can just see the cotyledons (seed leaves) emerging from this seed. Note that they have turned green in the light; the hypocotyl has also turned green. The green pigment cholorophyll is used to produce food (sugar) by 'photosynthesis'. Once this is done, the young plant is independent of the food supply in the seed. This point must be reached as soon as possible.

LIGHT AND TEMPERATURE
Lettuce seeds are sensitive to both light and temperature for germination. We have already seen how lettuce seeds react to light when germinating.

What is also not generally known, however, is that lettuce seed germination virtually 'drops off a cliff' at 25 deg C, with very slow germination even at 26 deg C. But there is also good news: Germination starts at 2 deg C (36 deg F). Peter Thompson shows this very clearly in his excellent book 'Creative Propagation'

Bibliography: Thompson, Peter(2005) 'Creative Propagation 2nd ed' (Pub:USA and UK by 'Timber Press')

Coriander In Cups After 9 Days

The coriander is only just germinating after being kept at about 15 deg C for 9 days. I removed the cover on the second day. Note that the seeds are still very moist, perhaps even too moist.

Feeding Azaleas And Spring Plants

Things have really started moving, outside, and now is a good time to feed acid-loving plants such as azaleas, rhododendrons, camellias. All other spring plants, including bulbs such as daffodils, can also be fed now.

WHAT FEED IS BEST?
I used to find blood and bone meal, given at about 35g per sq metre (1oz per sq yd), wonderful for spring plants, especially azaleas. But of late, I have been using a liquid ericaceous (lime-free) feed. The results do not seem quite as good, but still effective on all spring plants, including 'forest flames' and conifers.

The idea is to give a bit of nitrogen but not too much: We want flowers, not excess growth. A general purpose balanced feed (e.g. 7-7-7 (liquid growmore))can be used on most plants, but not lime-hating ones (although I can't see why it should make any difference: liquid feed shouldn't contain much lime, if any).

Types Of Seed Germination - Epigeal and Hypogeal

I wasn't going to mention the types of germination, but if I ignore it someone is bound to point it out. Whilst this has little or no effect upon growing techniques, it does give a more complete representation of the germination picture. As we shall see (hopefully), following the emergence and establishment of a new root system (radicle), the stem starts to develop and the plumule is thrust upwards. However, there are two types of germination, dependent upon what happens to the cotyledons: i.e. whether these grow ABOVE the ground (epigeal) or remain BELOW it (hypogeal).

EPIGEAL GERMINATION ('epigeal' means 'above the ground')

In dicotyledons, if that part of the shoot axis just BELOW the cotyledons (the hypocotyl) elongates, this drags the cotyledons out of the soil (the hypocotyl bends over and drags the cotyledons behind it). The plumule, along with its delicate growing point, the shoot meristem, is protected by being enclosed between the cotyledons. e.g. Most seeds, including sunflower, castor oil and French bean HYPOGEAL GERMINATION ('hypogeal' means 'below the ground') If that part of the shoot axis ABOVE the cotyledon(s) (the epicotyl) elongates, the plumule still emerges from the ground, but the cotyledon(s) is/are left behind. The epicotyl is also hooked and the plumule is dragged backwards to minimise damage to the tip. e.g. Broad beans, peas and corn. In both cases, the shoot straightens upon reaching light. This is another phytochrome-controlled response. See also: 'Hypogeal Germination of Monocot Corn (Maize)'; 'What Is A Seed?'; 'How To Germinate Seeds More Successfully'

How To Germinate Seeds More Successfully

Strange how seeds germinate and grow in the wild as if by magic, even in seemingly impossible conditions, yet not when our two penneth is involved. And it's not just because we're growing them inside. If ever you have spilled a few grass seeds between the flags whilst seeding a lawn, you will known what I am talkling about. Why is it that grass seeds are so difficult to grow on a lawn (at least for me), where one would assume they have everything they need, whilst they never fail to grow between the flags, devoid of water and soil? I don't know - another one of those growing mysteries. But seriously, how can we improve our competence in this area? How can we germinate seeds more successfully?

UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS
We have already looked at the structure of seeds and have seen that they are very-much-alive embryo plants complete with root, stem and leaf; yet amazingly these same seeds are able to maintain themselves in this state for long periods of time. How do they do this, and why?

SURVIVING THE WORST
Seeds are the way the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (flowering plants) increase their presence whilst surviving conditions too severe and/or too restricted for normal growth. These might be climatic such as drought or frost; or they might be physical such as fire or flood; or they might involve other factors such as light quality, or soil condition, or competition.

Over millions of years, plants have adapted to survive the worst (and also to anticipate the worst, but that's another story). They have squared the circle by creating a form - the seed - in which they are very much alive yet apparently dead (didn't I always say they were clever?). The seed represents the DORMANT stage of a plant's life cycle. This is how they do it.

A HARD COAT AND A PARCHED THROAT
As seeds mature they lose water and develop a hard coat.

Drying down to about 14% greatly reduces cell respiration: that process which is essential to all life. And this allows the embryo to use less of the food store from the seed, thus increasing its survival potential.

The seed coat keeps out water and air, to maintain the dormant state. Often hormones (growth substances) are also involved. Abscisic acid (ABA) both induces and maintains dormancy. Another hormone, gibberellic acid, works the other way; it is often used commercially to break dormancy.

OTHER PROCESSES
It is hard to believe that a seemingly dead and insignificant seed can be constantly monitoring the light in terms of intensity, colour and duration. Yet it does (See 'Should We Dig In The Dark?'). Furthermore, it also monitors the level of carbon dioxide around it . . . And also the amount and type of nutrients . . . soil acidity . . . And . . so on. Seeds really are deceivingly complex little critters.

WHY DOES IT DO ALL THIS?
All the above is used by the seed to begin its growth journey from the right position, in the right soil, at the right time of year . . . etc . . . to give it the best chance of survival. After all, it only gets one chance. If it messes up, that's it: instant death; that's why there are so many seeds. We can learn a lot here: If we become familiar with a seed's natural environment, we can usually be successful by emulating them. This is the secret to propagating difficult seeds.

READ THE PACKET
However, whilst plant dormancy is a fascinating study, it is far too diverse and complex to go into here. Fortunately, as mere ordinary growers we only need to know a few essentials. This is because most of the seeds we sow in our pots, containers, and even in our gardens, will come out of their dormant state and commence active growth simply by supplying water, air and the correct amount of warmth. Oh, and I should add another factor: light.

And, before I forget, there is something which is vital to success, something which no one ever seems to consider mentioning: READING THE PACKET and FOLLOWING ITS INSTRUCTIONS - to the letter, if possible. This way, any little quirks the seeds might have will be catered for. However, having said this, it is surprising how much packets differ in instructions, even over quite significant things. For example, I was instructed (by the packet) to cover the basil seeds last year, only to discover from a reliable source that they should not be covered, just pushed into the compost (at last, an excuse!)

THE GERMINATION PROCESS IN DICOTS
As the dry seed imbibes water, the enzymes within it wake up and begin to work upon the food stores (oils, starches or proteins) and mobilise them to produce fuel for new growth. Rapid swelling occurs at this stage and the contents of the seed burst through the seed coat, starting with the root (the radicle). Using the food reserves, it is essential to access and secure a water supply.

After this, the shoot (plumule) stretches upward, often dragging the cotyledons (which now have taken the form of seed leave(s)) behind it. Arching and dragging in this way prevents damage to the tender new leaves.

The new plant uses phytochrome to determine light intensity. If it is too low (as it would be if surrounded by other plants), the hormone gibberellic acid is produced which induces stretching (etiolation) until sufficient light is available. The leaves remain small at this stage to waste as little food as possible, and only develop further once sufficient light is reached. At this time, the leaves begin to photosynthesise and produce food to fuel further growth. It is essential this stage is reached as soon as possible.


NOW . . . AT LAST . . . HOW TO SOW SEEDS

THE PERFECT SCENARIO
As growers, we need to think of ways to supply enough water at sowing for the seeds to imbibe and start growing, then provide an ideal environment in terms of water/air mix, temperature, light, and nutrient levels.

We are often told to soak trays of compost with water AFTER sowing seeds. Whilst I cannot say this is wrong, it is nevertheless where most novices go wrong. And the reasons are obvious:

From what we have just seen, soaking only satisfies the first part of seed growth - that of imbibing water. It is only necessary to begin the process. Furthermore, it tends to disturb the freshly-sown seeds too much, leaving some exposed and others at different depths, and therefore at differing light and carbon dioxide concentrations. Not a good start.

I would advise to soak, then drain the compost, but BEFORE the seeds are sown. After levelling and light tamping, the seeds can then be sown, and covered if necessary (read the packet) with fine dry compost shaken evenly from an empty plant pot, or similar.

As the water gradually soaks down under gravity, it will pull oxygen (vital for growth) into the surface to replace it. Combined with the water lost through evaporation, this will work wonders for the seeds, and in my opinion should be all that is necessary. However, some growers mix their seeds with a fine layer of sharp sand, or perlite or vermiculite. All this helps keep the seeds moist whilst avoiding drowning and thus causing the onset of fungal diseases such as 'pythium' or 'phytophthora' which cause damping off.

It doesn't matter how much water is in the compost BELOW the seeds, since the developing root need not enter it. It can stop growing once reached, then follow the level down as this water is removed.

APPLY NO FURTHER WATER
Clearly, if further water is applied too soon, it will occupy the pore space around the seed and thus remove its vital supply of oxygen.

Most novice growers, not realising any of this, apply water too soon and drown the seeds. For some reason, we have all been conditioned to believe that roots need to be immersed in water. It must be those bean and pea seeds we grew in jam jars at school. No matter. Whatever the cause, we would all do well to read and digest the above. Success with seeds should then be possible.

WHAT ABOUT COVERING?
Here we go again. Can I just say, there is one truth which all growers should have framed and hung above their bed:

DISEASE LOVES EXCESS HUMIDITY.

This is the cause, in some way or other, of almost all plant problems - at least as far as the novice is concerned.

I am a dry grower and avoid covering anything if at all possible, no matter what the gardening books might recommend. Needless to say, after soaking seed compost with water, as described earlier, I do not cover it (many growers cover with a sheet of glass). And I am pleased to say that the technique outlined has been virtually 100% successful. I like to see the top of the compost changing colour. That way I know it is still damp enough underneath but airy enough on the surface.

I know I am using a propagator at the moment (to propagate begonias), but that is only because it was too early to grow most things. You will find more success with seeds if you grow them in natural conditions at a natural time of year. Propagators can be fine, but they also can provide too much humidity and, surprisingly, too much heat. They can also provide a heat which is too even (some plants need a different night and day temperature of at least 5 deg C). Study the germination temperatures on the back of the packet carefully. You will be amazed at how many plants like it cool. Don't be in a hurry. You can't force plants.

COMPOST MIX
Many growers either buy in special seed compost, or mix coarse sand or perlite or vermiculite into multipurpose. This is a good practice, since it helps aeration and also reduces the nutrient level.

However, this blog is about GROWING AT LEAST COST. It is therefore my intention to show you how to achieve good results with what you have. I have no axe to grind. And you can be sure that I will not look down on you if, for example, you prefer to use your own soil, free from the garden. Indeed, if you look at last year's posts, you will see I did that on several occasions (I am even now using last year's compost and last year's seeds). Even so, I would - for now at least - recommend a good brand of fresh, multi-purpose compost, which we can use for all purposes.

Planting Coriander Seeds

Coriander is easy to grow on a windowsill. And now is a good time to plant it so that it has time to mature before June. Although it will grow all year round from seed, it tends to be difficult to grow in the summer, as it runs to seed itself very easily during the hotter months.

I am using 200ml clear plastic drinking cups. These have several advantages for growing seeds, especially for coriander, where small plantings can be made at weekly intervals (or whatever interval is most suitable) throughout the year without taking up too much space. Using these cups is also an ideal way to learn how to grow, since we can see exactly (well, ALMOST exactly) what is happening beneath the surface of the compost, and we can have a better idea of what watering is all about. I outlined the benefits last March in 'Seeds in a Cup - Background'.

THE TECHNIQUE

The technique used to grow basil last year, outlined in 'Growing On A Windowsill', was successful for coriander (though, unfortunately, not for the basil). I am using it again here with slight modification.

An awl is a good tool to puncture the cup as near to the base as possible, so that the hole is visible and is not actually beneath the cup (where it would be blocked). It doesn't have to be too large, since - contrary to rhetoric - water will drain quite quickly even from the tiniest hole (smaller holes are also good for outside use, since they prevent slugs and other pests getting into the pots - just thought I'd mention that)

Use about 20 seeds and press them, evenly spaced, into the compost as far as you can without compressing it too much. Don't forget to place one or two at the edge so you can see the roots growing down the side of the cup.

You don't need to cover the seeds with dry compost. What I do is cover them for about a day or two with clingfilm. But I make sure that there is a hole in this film to prevent excessive humidity. Drops of water on the film first thing in the morning is O.K.

Place in a south-facing shallow windowsill in good light (direct sunlight is O.K. but watch for excessive drying and heating). This should keep the cup about 18 to 20 deg C (64 to 68 deg F) - you don't need to be too fussy. It is good if the surface of the compost dries a little, since this will draw air in and help avoid disease, but make sure seeds themselves remain at least partly damp. If you scratch the surface of the compost, it should be damp just beneath the surface. Spray with water if necessary. Otherwise, after 3 or 4 days, the seeds should be moist enough (they turn darker in colour) and spraying should not be necessary.

You should see the seed cases bursting open after 4 or 5 days.

If you haven't got a south-facing windowsill, start seeds off in a warm spot, but place cup in a cooler spot (about 15 to 16 deg C) once they start germinating.

Watering should not be necessary for a couple of weeks.

Click here to see last year's coriander posts.

What Is A Seed?

Although they come in many sizes, all seeds give the same impression - that they're DEAD. Upon catching our first glimpse of a packet's often miserable amount of contents, it is hard to conceive that each seed case contains a well-developed multi-cellular young plant, complete with embryonic roots, stem, with leaves already formed.

Of course, it's not too difficult to understand why this should be. When we think of living things, we tend to compare them to ourselves. And it's hard to imagine surviving for very long after being dried out like parchment, and perhaps frozen down to about -17 deg C for a few months (or even years) in the process.

But seeds can easily survive these conditions. And some seeds have survived - without man's help - for centuries, and even longer. Dr. Linda Berg, in her book 'Introductory Botany', states that:

'the longest-lived seed reliably recorded (by carbon dating), a sacred lotus, Nelumbo, from China, germinated after about 1200 years.'

I have even heard stories of corn seeds germinating after being removed from ancient Egyptian tombs, though I don't know how reliable this is. Nevertheless, it makes us think - in fact, it's absolutely staggering. And it's often made possible by the structure of the seed.

SEED STRUCTURE
The embryonic root (radicle) and shoot (plumule) come attached to one (as in Monocots) or two (as in Dicots) 'seed leaves' (cotyledons) The embryo is surrounded by varying amounts of 'endosperm tissue', and the whole lot is encased in the 'seed coat'(testa). Sometimes (e.g. bean) much of the endosperm has developed into cotyledon, or seed leaf.

TWO BASIC STRUCTURES

If you cut open a pea or bean seed (left), you will find they are comprised mostly of two large nut-like cotyledons; there is little soft endosperm. On a bean seed, it is also possible to see the micropyle. This is a tiny hole through which the pollen tube passed through the ovule to allow fertilision the egg.


On the other hand, a corn seed (right) has little structure, consisting mostly of starchy endosperm; with a small cotyledon.

SOURCE OF FOOD
No living thing can exist without a supply of food to supply energy to fuel basic metabolism, albeit this is greatly reduced during dormancy. Dormant animals have a supply of fat; plants vary in both the nature of the food reserve and in where it is stored. Oils or sugars (mostly starch) might be stored either in the endosperm or in the cotyledons.


Reference: Berg, L (1997) Introductory Botany: Plants, People and the Environment (U.S.A.:Saunders College Publishing)

Wetness Of Compost

If you look at last year's posts, you will see that I made a really big thing about watering. This is because, in my view, it is the crux of growing, the most important thing to master. It is also where almost all novices (and even some professionals) go wrong. Considering it is so critical and we mentioned it so much, it's strange that I never got around to defining some sort of standards which can easily be referred to for all occasions.

So I thought it about time I did just that, and indicate what I mean by a light, medium and heavy watering, both for propagating seeds and cuttings in compost, and for growing plants in pots.

COMPOST FOR SEEDS AND CUTTINGS

light watering
Mix water into compost thoroughly, squeezing constantly with fingers to ensure even distribution. After mixing, pick up a handful and squeeze quite hard. Water should be heard, and might just be visible at maximum pressure. However, water should not run out between the fingers, and should retract when grip released. Compost should form a ball which holds together upon release but which breaks up easily when poked. Hand should be left slightly damp but not wet.

This mix is ideal for taking cuttings and for use in a propagator.

medium Watering
Mix water with compost as before and clench a handful. This compost should release water through fingers when squeezed hard. But this release should stop when grip is released. Hand should be left wetted.

This is a very useful level of wetness and is ideal for many purposes when growing plants.

heavy watering
Compost is wetted and mixed until no more water can be added, then allowed to drain. It is then said to be at field capacity, an important factor in plant growth which we shall be discussing later on. Care should be taken not to add too much water, since drainage water will remove valuable nutrients (to avoid this, I catch drainage water and add back to compost as soon as possible).

WATERING POT PLANTS

light watering
Fill the space (usually about 1.25 cm (1/2 inch)) between compost surface and top of pot with water and allow to soak in. Watch that water does not run down side of compost, especially when it is dry. Dishing the surface helps avoid this. Tepid water also soaks in better than cold. A drop of eco-washing detergent can also be added as a wetting agent: this will help 'lubricate' the compost.

Use this level for winter watering, or any time plants are not in full growth.

medium watering
Two light waterings (i.e. about 2.5 cm (1 inch) of water). Compost must be allowed to drain.

This level is used when plants are in full growth but not in flower.

heavy watering
Soak pot either by immersion or by adding water, then allow to drain. This technique is useful if compost is becoming dry, since it ensures no dry spots are left. I water cyclamens and some geraniums (pelargoniums) this way. But all plants benefit from this technique occasionally, since it washes all old unused salts out of compost and makes way for a fresh start. It is essential that the pot is allowed to drain before putting back on a saucer, since we do not want the delicate root hairs immersed in water, especially with water sensitive plants like fuchsias.

This level of watering is usually only given when plants are flowering and in full growth.

Slugs Love My Delphiniums

It's that time again. That time when the weather wakes up, along with the slugs. Problem is, the delphiniums are also awake, producing tender new roots - the ideal breakfast for hungry slugs. Yes. There's no doubt about it. Slugs love my delphiniums.

Treating the roots with aluminium sulphate (pellets dissolved in water) at 2 oz per gallon, given at about 1 litre per plant last year, seems to have been successful. This was outlined last year in 'Slugging It Out - Part I'

Not all slugs attack plant roots, but the ones that do - such as the Garden Slug (Arion hortensis Agg) and the Keele Slug (Tandonia budapestensis) - cause devastation.

Aluminium sulphate is a contact poison. This means that it is not ingested (as are stomach poisons, such as methiocarb), but is absorbed through the skin when contacted. So the slugs need to be active, as they probably now are. And if they're not, no matter - aluminium sulphate destroys the eggs.

To help avoid damaging the beetles, which also eat eggs, I poured the solution close to the old stems. Sorry beetles. But I just can't take a chance.

Note that aluminium sulphate only works on small slugs.

Pests Have Favourites - Usually Mine!

Most garden pests can be tolerated, at least to a large degree. And, if left to its own devices Nature has its own methods of dealing with most of them.

I am absolutely fascinated by the ways in which plants can not only resist attack by pests, but also communicate with both insect predators and with other plants, in the process. There has been much research of late, most of which has already been outlined, for example in this review by Sophie Wilkinson.

PESTS HAVE FAVOURITES - USUALLY MINE
If you were with us last year, you will recall the problems I had with snails on a hosta and on some dahlias. But it was only on certain plants, not them all.

This is typical of pest attack. They usually tend to attack just certain varieties and leave others. And these seem to remain attack-free, year after year. So the obvious way would be to keep the ones which survive without protection and discard the rest. This, I do - and given the problems I had with snails on one of the hostas last year, I am also thinking of doing the same here. Problems arise when favourites are attacked. What then?

As you know, I don't like using chemicals for pest control. I know I recommend them, but this is to show that pests can be controlled this way, and also that it's not a closed shop - although I would prefer natural control, I am open to any means possible to control them, especially to preserve my favourites.

But, more than this: There are certain pests and certain types of attack which I am not confident can be left alone. I am thinking of slugs, snails and vine weevils, which attack the roots. I have lost endless plants this way.

I know there are nematodes (these look like tiny worms and enter the pest to destroy it from the inside) which will work in the soil. But these are expensive and will only work in warmer conditions - not now when the slugs are doing the worst of their damage on the tender young delphinium roots, and vine weevil grubs are attacking azaleas, primulas and pansies the same way.

Plant Begonia Tubers The Right Way Up

Don't be confused by begonia tubers when viewing for the first time. This typical tuber appears to be the wrong way up. The roots pictured are on top, along with the indentation of the old stem scar; however, the base of the tuber is smooth (you'll have to take my word for it), devoid of all roots.

PLANT THEM THE RIGHT WAY UP
The overall shape is saucer-like. Always plant them with the indentation on top and the rounded part beneath.

PURCHASE BUDDED TUBERS IF YOU CAN
Sometimes, buds will have developed around the old stem scar. These tubers should be purchased, since they will get away more quickly, with less risk of loss.

DIVIDING TUBERS DOESN'T REALLY WORK
Begonias are unusual in that they grow roots all over their surface. This is why they lose vigour when the tubers are cut in half since new roots do not form on the cut surfaces. I didn't report on it, but those I divided last year were not so good as normal, probably because they had been divided.

Uneven Triphylla Levelled Off

Although the triphylla fuchsia has resumed growth, as you can see this is very uneven - and the leaves still seem to be the wrong colour.

ALL STEMS CUT BACK LEVEL
I am hoping that cutting back the longer, more mature stems will help give the smaller ones chance to catch up a bit. The top of the plant is now almost level.

What I am really hoping is that any new shoots developing will be a better colour, then I can take cuttings and start again. But this plant should be all right for the garden.

Rose Stems Treated For Blackspot

Yes, I know the pruning cut has been sloped the wrong way (it should slope away from the bud to help keep it dry). But the roses are on the move. I thought the cold might have held them back. Not so.

Treated stems with 'Systhane' (myclobutanil) to suppress germination of blackspot spores overwintering on the wood.

Old wood is the worst for harbouring disease spores, since the deeper cracks provide ideal shelter.

Instead of 'Systhane', I could have used sulphur, which is a more organic way, but it is difficult to get into all the nicks and crannies. And I only have sulphur powder, which soon wears or washes off.

I shall spray again as soon as the buds begin to open, or in a fortnight, whichever is sooner.

Has The Early Winter Confused The Plants?

Last year was the first time I didn't cut back the old foliage on the border plants before winter. And, given the low temperatures, it's just as well. Leaving it could have done those dahlia tubers left in the ground a big favour. But now the Cranesbill geraniums are looking very untidy. I can't stand it any longer; I'm having a tidy-up.

Found these new buds beneath the old foliage. Again, I was surprised. Because once again, although these geraniums usually show early growth, I don't remember it being this early. But I could be wrong. I am left wondering if the low temperatures arriving so early in the winter have confused the plants into thinking the season is later than it is. I don't know if you are finding the same?

P.S. These plants can be dug up and thinned out by splitting, if required. Geraniums can be pulled apart by hand. But if the plants are more resistant, just divide them into two parts with either a knife or sharp spade. The two back-to-back forks method is just too much trouble.

Budding Begonia Mystery Continues

I still can't work out what caused premature budding of one of the begonia tubers in store. Although turning up the propagator heat to about 20 deg C (68 deg F) has produced this new bud on the blank tuber, there is little further development on the older buds, already present on the other tuber(right). So they must have been growing for months in store to have developed so much at such low temperatures. Begonias only grow slowly. It has me beaten.